Tech Tours Energy Generation Wind Energy Tour
| Wind Energy Tour |
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| Technology Tours | |||||||
| Written by Administrator | |||||||
| Tuesday, 15 January 2008 | |||||||
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Wind Energy This tour will guide you through the technology used to produce electrical power from the wind! These generators are all smaller than 100kW, but the same basic designs and theory apply to most every wind turbine. Related Links:
Wind Video - by US Department of Energy. Click here.
Why is wind energy gaining so much momentum? Spiraling utility bills, the need for uninterrupted service, the high cost of accessing the utility’s electric grid from a remote location, and concerns over environmental impacts are leading to the rush to residential wind systems. Reducing dependence on potentially volatile electric prices is another key motivator for many home-scale windsmiths. Depending on the local wind resource and utility rates, a small wind energy system can reduce a customer’s electricity bill by 50% to 90%. It can be installed as a stand-alone system, eliminating the high cost of extending utility power lines to a remote location, or it can be connected to the power grid, enabling the customer to sell excess power to the utility or buy additional power as needed. Over its 20- to 40-year life, a small residential wind turbine can offset approximately 1.2 tons of air pollutants and 200 tons of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse” gases. And it can do so at one-third to one-half the installed cost of the most competitive solar electric technology.
Wind Topography 2006 Minnesota Wind Topography Map Click Here
- State Wind Resource Maps
Reducing dependence on potentially volatile electric prices is another key motivator for many home-scale windsmiths. Depending on the local wind resource and utility rates, a small wind energy system can reduce a customer’s electricity bill by 50% to 90%. It can be installed as a stand-alone system, eliminating the high cost of extending utility power lines to a remote location, or it can be connected to the power grid, enabling the customer to sell excess power to the utility or buy additional power as needed. Over its 20- to 40-year life, a small residential wind turbine can offset approximately 1.2 tons of air pollutants and 200 tons of carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse” gases. And it can do so at one-third to one-half the installed cost of the most competitive solar electric technology.
Although local terrain features may cause the wind resource at specific sites to differ considerably from these estimates, you can get a ballpark estimate of your expected power production by multiplying the first column of the key corresponding to the color of your area by the rotor swept area of your wind turbine. For example, a 20 kW turbine with a 30-foot (10-meter) rotor diameter has a 700 square-foot (78 square-meter) swept area and in a Class 4 wind regime (pink) on an 80-ft (24-meter) tower would be expected to produce 48,000 – 54,000 kWh per year, reflecting a 27-31% capacity factor.
New high-resolution wind resource maps are being produced using state-of-the art computer modeling tools to give a better estimate of wind regimes at different heights above ground level. The models help predict daily and seasonal patterns which can be compared to on-site energy usage patterns. How Wind Turbines work
Turbines are mounted on towers – typically 80-120 feet high – which place the blades high enough to be exposed to the wind. There are many tower options, but in general the taller the tower, the more power the wind system can produce. The tower also raises the turbine above air turbulence created by objects (buildings, trees, etc.) near ground level. As a rule of thumb, the bottom of the rotor blades should be at least 30 feet above any obstacle within 300 feet of the tower. Towers may be self-supporting, but more commonly use guy wires. Some tower models can be tilted down to facilitate maintenance work. In addition to the tower and turbine, small wind energy systems require:
- A foundation – usually made of reinforced concrete
Small wind energy systems are sometimes referred to as “residential” applications, and indeed they are. But they also can and do provide power to farms, schools and other rural businesses. In the example shown on the right, a small wind turbine and solar photovoltaic panels provide supplementary power for a grid-connected, all-electric home including a heat pump and an electric car. However, small systems may also be installed to power a specific application such as pumping water distant from the utility grid. The size of system required to meet a given customer’s needs depends on how much energy the customer uses and the annual average wind speed. Typical Applications
The noise level of most modern residential turbines is around 52-55 decibels. They are audible, if you are outdoors and listening for it, but no noisier than your average refrigerator. Because small turbines are mounted on tall towers, they are visible from a distance. To minimize any objection from neighbors, the wind industry recommends customer property sizes of ½ acre or more for turbines up to about 2 kW, and 1 acre or more for larger wind turbines. While birds can collide with any structure, reports of small wind turbines killing birds are very rare. A sliding glass door is more dangerous to birds than a small wind turbine. Small wind turbines have not been found to interfere with TV or radio reception. The rotors are made of fiberglass or wood, both of which materials are transparent to electromagnetic waves such as radio or TV. Wind can supply electricity during a utility power outage if your system includes storage batteries and a way to disconnect from the utility grid (if you are connected). Small wind turbines are equipped with over-speed protection and are designed to furl out of the wind during extreme gusts. As a rule of thumb, someone considering whether to purchase and install a small wind energy system should look at the following factors: Does property have a good wind resource? Wind resource maps can tell you if you live in a Class 2 zone or better, but terrain and other factors also affect windiness at a particular site. In general, the more exposed, the better. Size of property. One-half acre is typically enough for the smallest small wind systems (up to 2 kW), but the general rule-of-thumb is one or more acre. Average monthly electricity bills of $100 or more mean small wind is more likely to be economic. Local zoning codes or covenants explicitly allowing wind turbines can help expedite the permitting process. State or local programs which offer incentives for small wind systems will improve the economics.
Utility requirements for connecting to the gird are not prohibitive Tax credits or rebates for the purchase of wind turbines or good incentives for the sale of excess electricity Stand-alone or hybrid off-grid wind systems can be appropriate for homes, farms, or even entire villages that are far from the nearest utility lines. The cost of running a power line to a remote site to connect with the utility grid can be prohibitive, ranging from $15,000 to more than $50,000 per mile depending on terrain. The idea of net metering is to allow the electric meters of customers with generating facilities to turn backwards when their generators are producing more energy than the customers demand. Net metering allows customers to use their generation to offset their consumption over an entire billing period, not just at the time the electricity is produced. This way the customers can receive retail value for more of the electricity they generate. Net metering programs vary by state and by utility company. Net excess generation (NEG) may be carried on a monthly basis, or it may be credited for up to a year. Annual NEG credits allow wind turbine owners to use energy produced in the winter, when weather tends to be windier, to displace large summer loads such as air-conditioning or pumping water for irrigation. Modern Wind Turbines
Return On Investment Calculated with Zone 2 wind speeds at 120 ft. (11.5mph) Average home usage of 1000 kW-h/month NOTE: The Generators will pay for them selves more quickly as the utility rates increase!
There are 21 million US homes and 4.6 million commercial buildings located on properties of one or more acre, 60% of them in areas with Class 2 winds or better. Why, then, are there not more small wind energy systems already in place? Part of the reason is that low production volume and historic lack of public funding have led to relatively high costs for this technology. Efforts by the US Department of Energy and state agencies to promote small wind have only recently begun to help. Public awareness has been focused on other technologies. Other barriers include zoning regulations with height restrictions of 35 feet and concerns about potential noise from turbines. The process of obtaining approval for interconnection with the utility grid can be expensive and time-consuming.
The US Dept. of Energy has made small wind a major emphasis of its current outreach efforts. DOE’s Advanced Small Wind Turbine Program, combined with industry R&D, is improving small wind technology while lowering the manufacturing costs. As the market begins to expand, higher volume production is also expected to lower costs, perhaps by as much as 30%. New low-cost “micro” 1.5 kW systems are able to generate 100-300 kWh per month for a total installed cost of under $4000. A host of programs and policies are already in place to nurture the rural residential wind market. More are in development. At the federal level, the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) requires utilities to connect with and purchase power from small wind energy systems. However, there are currently no federal tax credits for small wind systems (they expired in 1985). At the state level, California, Illinois, New Jersey, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana and Rhode Island offer rebates, grants, or buy-down programs. Several states offer tax credits to offset the cost of installing a wind energy system. Some states also require net metering on an annual “banking” cycle to help consumers maximize the value of the power they generate. States which have standardized interconnection requirements for small renewable energy-generating facilities can also making it easier for small wind systems to work. Economic Factors
Once you are confident that your site can support a wind turbine, establish an energy budget to help define the appropriate turbine size. Since energy conservation is usually less expensive than energy production, making your house or farm more energy efficient first will likely reduce the amount of investment in a wind system to meet your needs. Most wind system purchasers have done all the reasonable efficiency measures first. Approach buying the equipment as you would any major purchase. You will need to weigh costs and various degrees of rugged/durable designs. Obtain and review the product literature from several manufacturers, and research those you want to pursue to ensure they are recognized businesses and their parts and service will be available when you need them. Find out how long the warranty lasts and what it includes, and ask for references of customers with installations similar to the one you are considering. Ask system owners about performance, reliability, maintenance and repair requirements, and whether the system is meeting their expectations. A rule of thumb for estimating the cost of a small wind system is $2-4 per installed watt, with larger turbines costing less. For example, a 10 kW system costs $30-40,000 installed, and a 50 kW system costs $100-150,000 installed. A comparable photovoltaic (PV) solar system would cost over $90,000 including wiring and installation. Wind turbines become more cost effective as the rotor size increases in diameter. Although small wind systems cost less in initial outlay, they are proportionally more expensive than larger machines, unlike PV systems which have basically the same cost per watt independent of array size. At the 50 watt size level, a small wind turbine may cost up to $8/watt, compared to approximately $6/watt for a PV module.
A typical home consumes between 800-2000 kWh of electricity per month, and 4-10 kW systems are can meet this demand. For customers paying 12 cents/kWh or more for electricity in an area with average wind speeds of 10 mph or more, payback periods will generally fall in the range of 8-16 years. A wind system is a good investment in the same way that buying a home is a better investment than renting a home. In both cases, you are paying off a purchase and your “equity” grows each month. In many cases, the monthly payment on a wind system loan will be largely offset by the monthly reduction of your electric bill. Once the loan is paid off (after 8-16 years), the energy from your wind system will be virtually free (except for upkeep costs) for the remainder of the system’s 20-50 year life. A wind system will typically provide a safe and secure 8-25% after tax rate of return on your investment. A wind turbine manufacturer can help you estimate the energy production and the expected payback period based on the particular wind turbine power curve, the average annual wind speed at your site, the height of the tower you plan to use, and the wind frequency distribution – that is, the number of hours the wind blows at each speed during an average year. The calculation will be adjusted for your elevation, which affects air density and thus turbine power output. Your payback period will also depend on how you pay for the equipment; if you take out a loan your interest rate will affect how long it takes for the system to pay for itself. Other key factors are the cost and value of the electricity produced, and whether you are able to access rebates or buy-down funds or other financial incentives such as net metering, tax exemptions and tax credits. For example, if you can participate in a California-type 50% buy-down program, have net metering and an average annual wind speed of 15 mph (6.7 m/s), your simple payback would be approximately 6 years. For More Information on Small Wind Economics:
Minnesota Commerce Department: Mike Taylor 651 296 6830 www.commerce.state.mn.us
Estimating Wind Resources Another way to indirectly quantify your wind resource is to obtain long-term wind speed information from a nearby airport. Caution should be used because local terrain influences and other factors may cause the wind speed recorded at an airport to be different from your particular location. Airport wind data are generally measured at heights about 20-33 ft (6-10 meters) above ground. Average wind speeds may be 15-25% greater at a turbine hub-height of 80 ft (24 meters). The National Climatic Data Center collects data from airports and makes wind data summaries available for purchase. Another useful indirect method of estimating your wind resource is by observing your site’s vegetation. Trees, especially conifers or evergreens, can be permanently deformed by strong winds. For more information on the use of “flagging,” see "A Siting Handbook for Small Wind Energy Conversion Systems" available through the National Technical Information Service. Direct monitoring by a wind resource measurement system at a site provides the clearest picture of the available resource. Wind monitoring equipment can be purchased for $1200-4000, depending on tower height. This expense may not be justified for a small wind turbine project. The anemometers, or wind sensors, must be set high enough to avoid turbulence created by trees, buildings, and other obstructions. The most useful readings are taken at turbine hub-height, the elevation at the top of the tower where the blades will connect.
State incentive programs include rebates, buy-down programs, and grants; loan funds and industry recruitment programs; sales tax and property tax exemptions; personal and corporate tax incentives; and net metering policies. 10 states have rebates, grants, or buy-down programs (CA, IA, IL, IN, MA, MI, MT, & NJ), which offer the strongest financial incentive for the small wind turbine market. 15 states offer loan funds (AK, AZ, CA, CT, ID, IA, MD, MN, MO, NE, NY, OR, TN, VA & WI), and 6 offer industry recruitment incentives (AZ, CA, CT, MT, NC & WA). 10 states have sales tax incentives (AZ, IA, MA, MN, ND, NJ, OH, RI, VT, & WA); 18 states have property tax incentives (CT, IL, IN, IA, KS, MD, MN, MT, NV, NH, ND, OH, OR, RI, SD, TX, VT & WI); and 14 states have personal or corporate tax credits, deductions, exemptions, and accelerated depreciation policies (AZ, HI, ID, MA, MN, MT, NC, ND, OH, OR, RI, TX, UT, & WV) for installation of wind energy systems. Other polices include zoning ordinances allowing tall towers; wind access laws; and line extension requirements. FL, MN, MT, OR & WI have wind access or easement rights laws to secure property owners’ wind resources, which include restrictions against neighborhood covenants that prohibit the use of renewables. Texas has a unique line extension policy which requires utilities to provide information on on-site renewable energy technology options to customers required to pay for the construction of utility power lines to a remote location. 33 states have net metering policies (AZ, AK, CA, CO, CT, DE, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, ME, MD, MA, MN, MT, NV, NH, NJ, NM, NY, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, TX, VT, VA, WA, WI WY), which allow customers to offset power consumption up to 100% at the full retail value over the billing period. Net metering rules are determined on a state-by-state basis and sometimes by individual utility. Some state laws apply only to private investor-owned utilities that are regulated by public utility commissions, and as a result many rural electric cooperatives are not required to offer the option to their customers. This is unfortunate since small wind turbines have historically been used and have a larger market in rural settings. Without net metering, small wind system owners are considered to be qualifying facilities under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA), and are paid only the utility’s avoided fuel cost (often under 2 cents/kWh) for their “instantaneous” excess generation. Combined with requirements to purchase a second meter, this arrangement gives little financial incentive to consumers to install wind systems. Potential Obstacles
Municipal building codes often require that a building permit be obtained prior to any installation, and that the building inspector approve the completed installation. You can find out about zoning ordinances and codes in your area by calling the local building inspector, board of supervisors, town clerk, or planning board. They can tell you if you will need to obtain a building permit and provide you with a list of requirements. Many rural areas are not zoned at all, or if zoned for agricultural use may be subject to few restrictions. Most restrictions occur in populated areas where height, safety or aesthetics are issues. In addition to zoning issues, your neighbors might object to a wind turbine that blocks their view, or they might be concerned about noise. You should consider obstacles that might block the wind (or create turbulence) in the future, such as planned construction or immature trees. Wind speed increases with height above ground, and increasing speed increases wind power exponentially. Thus, relatively small investments in increased tower height can yield very high rates of return in power production. For instance, installing a 10-kW generator on a 100-foot tower rather than a 60-foot tower involves a 10% increase in overall system cost but can result in 29% more power. Taller towers also raise blades above air turbulence, allowing the turbines to produce more power. A rule of thumb for proper and efficient operation of a wind turbine is that the bottom of the turbine’s blades should be at least 10 feet (3 meters) above the top of anything within 300 feet (about 100 meters).County ordinances that restrict tower height may adversely affect optimum economics for small wind turbines. Unless the zoning jurisdiction has established small wind turbine as a “permitted” or “conditional” use, it may be necessary to obtain a variance or special use permit to erect an adequate tower. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has regulations on the height of structures, particularly those near the approach path to runways at local airports. Objects that are higher than 200 feet (61 meters) above ground level must bereported, and beacon lights may be required. If you are within 10 miles of an airport, no matter how tall your tower will be, you should contact your local FAA office to determine if you need to file for permission to erect a tower. A general rule of thumb for proper and efficient operation of a wind turbine is that the bottom of the turbine’s blades should be at least 10 feet (3 meters) above the top of anything within 300 feet (about 100 meters).
Some permitting agencies have set up noise complaint resolution processes. Agency staff are prepared to respond to any complaint within 24 to 48 hours, and to work with turbine owners and concerned citizens to resolve the issue promptly. The visibility of a particular wind system will depend on many factors, including tower height, proximity to neighbors and roadways, local terrain, and tree coverage. Some neighbors may object to a wind turbine being in their field of view, and this could be an issue when applying for a zoning permit. It may be worthwhile to investigate your neighbors' concerns before investing in a wind turbine. In most areas, modern wind turbines are an uncommon sight, so it is natural to expect some reservations about their introduction. Objections are more likely to occur in populated and tourist areas. Opposition is least likely to surface in rural settings and after some small turbines have been installed in the area. When wind turbines are seen spinning, they are perceived as being useful and therefore beneficial. Observers are more quick to forgive the visual intrusion if the wind turbines serve a purpose. If a wind turbine breaks down, it should be repaired as soon as possible. For More Information on Zoning Issues:
Legal and Safety Issues – U.S. DOE Small Wind System Installation Reference Brief
www.eren.doe.gov/consumerinfo/refbriefs/ja2.html
AWEA Advice from an Expert www.awea.org/faq/sagrillo
Awareness
It is often useful to inform local residents and permitting officials about positive aspects of wind energy projects compared to conventional electric generation
The 35-foot height limit in many zoning ordinances dates back to the early 1900s as the height the typical firefighting engine could pump water, and is clearly not pertinent for modern residential wind turbines. Small wind advocates may want to encourage local governments to allow wind turbine towers up to at least Grid Interconnection
A grid-connected wind turbine can reduce your consumption of utility-supplied electricity for lighting, appliances, electric heat, and other uses. When the wind system produces more electricity than you use, the excess is sent or sold to the utility. If the turbine cannot deliver the full amount of energy you need, the utility makes up the difference. A grid-connected system requires no batteries for storage; only a power conditioning unit (an inverter) or an induction generator is needed to make the turbine output electrically compatible with the utility grid. The output is connected to the household breaker panel on a dedicated breaker, just like a large appliance. In effect, the utility acts as a big battery bank and the utility sees the wind turbine as a negative load. Electrical code requirements emphasize proper wiring and installation and the use of components that have been certified for fire and electrical safety, such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL). Most local electrical codes requirements are based on the National Electrical Code (NEC), published by the National Fire Protection Association. Your utility’s principal concern will be that your wind turbine automatically stops delivering any electricity to power lines during an outage. Otherwise line workers and the public, thinking that the line is “dead,” might not take normal precautions and might be injured. Another concern among utilities is that the power from your facility synchronize property with the utility’s grid, and that it match the utility’s own power in terms of voltage, frequency, and power quality. Most utilities and other electricity providers require you to enter into a formal agreement with them before you interconnect your wind turbine to the utility grid. In states with retail competition for electricity service such as California and Pennsylvania (where your utility operates the local wires, but you have a choice of electricity provider), you may have to sign separate agreements with each company. These agreements are usually written by the utility or electricity supplier, and the terms and conditions of those with investor-owned utilities must be reviewed and approved by state regulatory authorities. Several state governments are developing new standardized interconnection requirements for small renewable energy generating facilities. At least 5 states (CA, DE, NY, OH & TX) have conducted proceedings on interconnection of distributed generating facilities. In most cases the new requirements are based on standards and testing procedures developed by consensus through independent third-party authorities, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and UL. Sixteen states have adopted interconnection standards based on UL/IEEE (CA, DE, GA, MD, MT, NJ, NM, NV, NY, OH, OR, RI, VT, VA, WA, & WY). As existing safety standards developed specifically for photovoltaics, UL 1741 and IEEE 929 have been successfully used to certify inverters for small wind turbines. The IEEE is working on standard IEEE P1547 for intertied “distributed generation” technologies including small wind turbines. Most of the states with interconnection standards listed above have also developed simplified, streamlined agreements for utilities to interconnect small-scale renewable generating facilities, including wind turbines. These simplified standard contracts are often no more than a few pages long, and in some cases even shorter. These shorter agreements are designed to be relatively consumer-friendly and avoid complicated legal or technical jargon. Some utilities require small wind turbine owners to maintain liability insurance of $1 million or more, claiming this is necessary to protect the utility from liability for facilities it does not own and control. However, such insurance requirements are excessive and unduly burdensome, and quickly make small wind turbine systems uneconomic. Since PURPA was enacted requiring utilities to interconnect with the grid, there have been no liability claims relating to electrical safety of wind turbines anywhere in the U.S., in spite of over 400 million hours of interconnected operation.In 8 states (CA, GA, MD, NV, OH, OK, OR and WA), laws or regulatory authorities prohibit utilities from imposing any insurance requirements on small wind systems that qualify for “net metering.” In 5 other states (ID, NM, NY, VA & VT), regulatory authorities have allowed utilities to impose insurance requirements, but have reduced the required coverage amounts to levels consistent with the conventional residential or commercial insurance policies (such as $100,000-300,000). If your utility requires insurance amounts that seem excessive, you may want to protest these requirements -- to regulatory authorities, in the case of investor-owned utilities, or to the utility’s governing board in the case of publicly owned utilities. You may be asked to indemnify your utility for any potential liability -- that is, to agree not to hold the utility responsible for property damage or personal injury -- arising from the operation of your wind turbine. Although the basic principle is sound, indemnity provisions should not favor the utility and should be fair to both parties. You should request language such as “each party shall indemnify the other…” rather than “the customer shall indemnify the utility…” More Information on Interconnection:
“Connecting a Small-Scale Renewable Energy System to an Electric Transmission System” U.S. Department of Energy Reference Brief (bibliography) 800-DOE-EREC
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Brainerd Public Utilities:
http://www.bpu.org
Wind Resource Atlas of the United States http://rredc.nrel.gov/wind/pubs/atlas
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Wall Street Journal Article -Click Here
Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy www.dsireusa.org
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| Last Updated ( Friday, 20 June 2008 ) | |||||||
If the system is designed to stand alone or operate during a power outage, it will need deep-cycle batteries (like the ones used for golf carts) to store power, and a charge controller to keep the batteries from overcharging. A grid-connected system not designed to operate during a power outage does not need batteries.
A home or farm using 1400 kWh per month in a location with Class 4 winds could cover virtually all its electricity needs with a 10 kW turbine. A larger ranch or facility using 10,000 kWh per month would require a 50-60 kW system to meet its electricity needs, depending on the wind resource available. Some commercial customers may even consider negotiating a power purchase agreement with their local utility to purchase back excess electricity generated.
Whether or not to connect your wind system to the local utility grid depends on a number of factors. In general, grid-connected small wind systems can be practical if the following conditions exist: Average annual wind speed of at least 10 miles per hour (4.5 meters per second)
Fortunately, there are a number of promising developments that are bringing down these historic barriers.
Although wind energy systems involve a significant initial investment, they can be competitive with conventional energy sources when you account for a lifetime of reduced or altogether avoided utility costs. The length of the payback period – the time it takes for accumulated savings resulting from your system to equal the cost of the system itself – depends on the system you choose, the wind resource at your site, your electricity costs, and how you use your wind system.
You will need to evaluate the trade-off between the incremental cost of a taller tower and increased wind turbine performance. Even a small increase in wind speed results in a large increase in power, so a taller tower will increase the productivity of any wind turbine by giving it access to higher wind speeds at higher heights. One of the most common installation mistakes is mounting a wind turbine on a tower that is too short. It’s like putting a solar system in the shade.
Before you invest in a small wind turbine, you should look into obtaining a building permit for your installation. Most cities and towns have ordinances to ensure that structures and activities are safe, proper and compatible with existing or planned development. Many jurisdictions restrict the height of structures permitted in residentially zoned areas, although variances are often obtainable. A conditional use permit may be required, which could specify a number of requirements the installation must meet.
The most characteristic sounds of a wind turbine are the "swish...swish...swish" of its turning blades and the whirring of the generator. Improved designs have made wind turbines much quieter over the last decade. Within several hundred feet of a machine, these sounds may be distinguishable from the background noise of local traffic or the wind blowing through the trees, but they usually are not disruptive or objectionable. The impact on any particular neighbor will depend on how close they live, whether they are upwind or downwind, and the level of other noise sources such as traffic.
In order to reduce a customer’s utility bill, the small wind system must be connected to the utility grid on the consumer’s side of the utility meter. The federal and state regulations that govern this connection create both rights and obligations. In some cases, particularly in years past, the use of small wind systems has been discouraged by overly complex and expensive requirements. Fortunately, such discriminatory utility practices are now unusual. Federal regulations under the Public Utility Regulatory Polices Act of 1978 (PURPA) require utilities to connect with and purchase power from small wind energy systems. However, you should contact your utility before connecting to their distribution lines to address any power quality and safety concerns.| < Prev | Next > |
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